Advanced English Knowledge and Skills

A genre is not merely a label. It creates expectations about purpose, organization, evidence and language. A text may combine genres, but one communicative purpose is usually dominant.

The three-pass procedure

1. Preview: inspect title, source, opening and paragraph beginnings. Form a provisional hypothesis.
2. Question-led reading: identify whether the item requires a detail, relation, attitude, reference or whole-text judgment.
3. Verification: return to the relevant lines and test every option. Choose what is fully supported, not merely plausible.

Question types and the strategy each one needs

Typical distractors

• True but not in the text: correct in the world, unsupported by the passage.
• Extreme wording: always, never, only, all where the text says often, may, some.
• Partial truth: correct for one paragraph but not for the whole text.
• Reversal: cause and effect, or the two sides of a contrast, swapped.
• Echo: repeats words from the text but changes the meaning.

Identifying genre from a single sentence

Managing time under examination conditions

Spend the first minute on the title and paragraph openings; answer detail questions first because they are quick; leave whole-text and inference questions until you understand the argument; and return to uncertain items with the remaining time. Avoid spending more than about one and a half minutes on a single item at the first pass.

Scanning

Convert the question into a search key: a date, name, percentage, repeated term, synonym or category. Read a small window around the match because the answer may be expressed indirectly.

Comparison

Compare like with like: cost with cost, purpose with purpose, method with method. A distractor may combine one true statement about A with an unrelated truth about B.

Fact versus opinion

Skimming, scanning and close reading

Search keys by information type

• Numbers and dates: look for digits, but also words such as half, a third, nearly three quarters, the following year.
• Names: capital letters, titles and appositions (“Dr Patel, the project’s director”).
• Reasons: because, since, due to, owing to, so that.
• Comparisons: more … than, whereas, unlike, similarly.
• Tables and graphs: read the title, axes and units first; check whether values are percentages or counts.

Comparison questions: common mistakes

• Using a figure for A where the text gives it for B.
• Missing the quantifier: both, neither, either, only one.
• Treating a similarity as a difference because the wording changes (also versus unlike).

Fact, opinion and reported claim

Evaluative adjectives (far more engaging, disappointing), modals of probability (may, probably) and verbs of stance (argue, suggest, claim) usually mark opinion or claim. Verbs such as show, demonstrate and report present evidence, but remember that a text may report that someone claims something: the report is a fact, the claim is still a claim.

Reference

Anaphora points backward: “The teachers revised the plan. They simplified it.” Cataphora points forward: “When she entered, Dr Patel noticed the silence.” Use agreement, semantic compatibility, grammatical role and discourse prominence.

Vocabulary inference

Cohesive patterns

Cohesion is the surface network of links; coherence is the meaningful whole. Connectors cannot repair contradictory or badly ordered ideas.

More reference devices

Testing a referent

1. List the possible antecedents (nouns that come before).
2. Check number, person and gender agreement.
3. Replace the pronoun with each candidate and read the sentence aloud.
4. Prefer the candidate that fits the meaning and the main discourse topic.

When two candidates both agree grammatically, the meaning of the following words usually decides: “The inspector told the teacher that she had been promoted” is ambiguous in isolation; context must settle it.

Inferring words from context: further cues

• Synonym or restatement: “The results were inconclusive, that is, they did not settle the question.”
• Punctuation: a definition in dashes, brackets or after a colon.
• Tone/connotation: thrifty (positive) versus stingy (negative) may share a core meaning.
• Multiple meanings: in “The bank of the river” and “The bank lent money,” the context selects the sense.

Identifying the pattern in a passage

1. Read the opening and closing sentences: they often state the controlling idea.
2. Ask the central question of each pattern (see the table) and test which one the passage answers.
3. Check the signal words, but verify them: however may mark a contrast inside a problem–solution text.
4. Check how the paragraphs are ordered: by time (sequence), by importance (listing), by problem and response, or by point-by-point comparison.

Combined patterns

Longer texts combine patterns, so ask which pattern controls the whole text. An article that defines a term and then compares two systems is dominantly comparison–contrast, with definition as a supporting move.

Question stems to expect

• “How is the passage organized?” — name the pattern, not the topic.
• “Which sentence best states the main idea?” — it covers the whole text, not one example.
• “What is the function of the second paragraph?” — describe its role (example, objection, solution), not its content.

Point of view

Literary point of view asks who perceives and narrates: first person, third-person limited or omniscient. In articles and emails, viewpoint also concerns how an issue is framed.

Tone and attitude

Purpose, attitude, mood and intention

• Purpose: the response sought—inform, explain, persuade, complain, request, warn or entertain.
• Attitude: the writer’s evaluation.
• Mood: the emotional atmosphere—tense, hopeful, bleak.
• Intention: what a speaker attempts through an utterance.

Predicting continuation

A paragraph ending with a problem often moves to causes or solutions. A concession usually prepares a limitation. A narrative complication predicts attempted resolution.

Vocabulary of tone

Stated, implied and assumed

• Stated: written in the text.
• Implied: not written, but the evidence leaves no reasonable alternative.
• Assumed: brought by the reader and not supported; this is the source of wrong answers.

Author versus character

In narrative, a character’s attitude is not necessarily the author’s. Judge the author’s attitude from the narrator’s choice of words, irony and the outcome of events, not from what one character says.

Question stems on attitude and purpose

• “The author’s tone can best be described as…” — choose the single word that fits most of the evidence.
• “The writer’s main purpose is to…” — choose the verb that covers the whole text (argue, explain, warn, complain), not one paragraph.
• “The writer would most likely agree with…” — choose the statement consistent with the text, not an extension of it.

A paraphrase remains approximately as specific as the source but changes linguistic form. Preserve participants, time, modality, scope and degree.

Paraphrase operations

• Change clause structure: active/passive, verbal/nominal, coordination/subordination.
• Change word class: the committee decided → the committee’s decision.
• Use accurate synonyms and change order.
• Preserve technical terms when substitution reduces precision.
• Keep hedges: might is not will; some is not all.

Summary hierarchy

Retain the controlling idea, major support and essential conclusion. Remove examples, repetition and decorative detail unless central.

Paraphrase, summary and quotation

A paraphrasing routine

1. Read until you can explain the idea without looking at the source.
2. List the key constraints: subject, action, modality (may, will), quantity (some, most), time and condition.
3. Change the structure first (active/passive, noun/verb), then the words.
4. Compare with the source: nothing added, nothing lost, no stronger or weaker claim.

Typical faults in a bad paraphrase or summary

• Overgeneralization: some becomes all; may becomes will.
• Added opinion: “…which is unacceptable.”
• Copying: changing one word of the original.
• Detail over idea: a summary built on one example.
• Reversal: contrast ignored (“although” treated as “because”).

Reduction in a summary

Move from detail to idea: replace a list with a category (“apples, pears, plums” → “fruit”), merge parallel sentences, omit examples and repetition, and keep the writer’s conclusion and the one qualification on which it depends.

Simplified order: predeterminer + central determiner + number/order + adjective + noun: all those first three demanding tasks. Two central determiners normally cannot co-occur: the my book → my book.

Articles, determiners and quantifiers: building a noun phrase

Articles, determiners and quantifiers are best understood as choices that shape the reference of a noun phrase. They answer questions such as: Is the referent identifiable? Is it singular or plural? Is the noun countable or uncountable in this meaning? Is the quantity exact, large, small, sufficient or unspecified? British Council grammar materials distinguish specific determiners, which identify a referent the speaker assumes is recoverable, from general determiners and quantifiers, which introduce or measure less specifically identified entities. This framework is more reliable than memorizing isolated lists.

At lycée level, the main difficulty is not recognizing a, an and the, but coordinating article choice with countability, number, definiteness and discourse context. The same lexical noun may be countable in one meaning and uncountable in another: experience can mean general practical knowledge and be uncountable, or an individual event and be countable. A correct answer therefore explains the noun phrase in context rather than applying a rule to the noun in isolation.

1. The article system: a/an, the and zero article

The indefinite article depends on sound, not spelling: an hour because the initial sound is a vowel, but a university because the word begins with a /j/ sound. The definite article is not simply “for something mentioned before.” Previous mention is one route to identifiability, but shared knowledge, uniqueness in context and defining modification can also make a noun phrase definite: “Close the door,” “the sun,” or “the book on the desk.”

The zero article is especially important in generalization. “The students need support” usually refers to a particular identifiable group; “Students need feedback” makes a general statement about students as a class. Likewise, “The education I received was excellent” identifies a specific experience, while “Education is important” uses the uncount noun generically.

2. Other determiners and the logic of reference

Determiners include demonstratives (this, that, these, those), possessives (my, your, their), distributives such as each and every, and words such as some, any, no, another and other. In ordinary noun phrases, central determiners normally compete for the same slot: we say “my book” or “the book,” not “the my book.” This helps explain why article errors often arise when learners transfer structures from another language.

This/these and that/those encode number and often relative distance, but “distance” can be physical, temporal or discourse-related. “This week” refers to the current time frame; “that idea” can refer back to an earlier proposition. Possessives already make a noun phrase sufficiently specified in most ordinary uses: “my teacher,” not “the my teacher.”

3. Quantifiers: countability changes the choice

The contrast between few/a few and little/a little includes evaluation. “Few students completed the task” emphasizes scarcity and often has a negative implication. “A few students completed the task” means some did, often with a more positive or neutral orientation. The same relation holds between “little time” and “a little time.”

Much and many are common in questions and negatives, while affirmative everyday English often prefers a lot of: “We do not have much time,” “Do you have many examples?”, but “We have a lot of work.” This is a usage tendency, not an absolute grammatical ban. Formal writing can use much and many affirmatively, especially in structures such as “Many researchers argue…”

4. Countability is meaning-dependent

Some of the most frequent learner errors come from treating countability as a permanent property of a word. Paper can be uncountable when it means material and countable when it means an article or document. Chicken can refer to food as an uncount substance or to an animal as a count noun. Work is normally uncountable when it means activity, while a work is possible for a work of art or literature.

Several common academic nouns are usually uncountable in standard English: information, advice, research, equipment, homework. We do not normally say “an information” or “advices.” Instead we use partitive expressions such as “a piece of information” and “two pieces of advice,” or count a related noun such as “two studies.” A good exam answer should not merely correct the article; it should identify the countability problem that caused it.

A Moroccan classroom example

A teacher asks students to write a short report about digital learning in their school. One learner writes: “The technology is useful because students can find many informations and an advice from websites.” A useful correction sequence is: first identify technology as general or specific depending on context; second explain that information and advice are ordinarily uncountable; third propose “students can find a lot of information and useful advice online.” If the writer means particular technologies already introduced in the report, “the technology” may be justified. The correction therefore combines grammar with intended reference.

Procedure for solving article and quantifier questions

1. Locate the head noun of the phrase.
2. Determine its meaning in this sentence.
3. Decide whether it is count or uncount in that meaning.
4. If count, determine singular or plural.
5. Ask whether the referent is identifiable to the listener or reader.
6. Choose an article or determiner, then check whether another determiner is already present.
7. For quantity, choose a quantifier compatible with countability and intended evaluation.

Frequent errors / points of vigilance

• Using a/an with an uncount noun: “an advice,” “an information.”
• Omitting a determiner before a singular count noun when one is required.
• Using the for all general nouns because another language uses an article there.
• Choosing a/an from the written first letter rather than the first sound.
• Confusing few with a few and little with a little.
• Using many with uncount nouns or much with plural count nouns.
• Assuming a noun has only one countability pattern in all meanings.

Application activity with answers

Complete and justify: (1) She gave me ___ useful advice. (2) We visited ___ school that won the prize last year. (3) ___ water in this bottle is cold. (4) There are very ___ computers available, so groups must share. (5) We still have ___ time; we can check one more answer. (6) ___ research takes time, but ___ research conducted in this project was completed quickly.

Answers: (1) zero article or some: advice is uncountable. (2) the if the defining relative clause identifies the school intended; a is possible in a different discourse where the speaker merely introduces one school matching that description, so context matters. (3) The, because the following phrase identifies the water. (4) few, because computers is count plural and the sentence emphasizes shortage. (5) a little, because time is uncountable and a positive remaining amount is intended. (6) zero article for the general concept; the for the specific research defined by “conducted in this project.”

Key points

• Article choice depends on countability, number and identifiability.
• A/an is restricted to singular count nouns and follows sound rather than spelling.
• The marks an identifiable referent; previous mention is only one source of identifiability.
• Zero article commonly expresses general reference with plural count and uncount nouns.
• Determiners organize reference, and central determiners usually do not stack freely.
• Quantifiers must match countability and can add evaluative meaning.
• Countability belongs to a noun in a particular meaning and context, not to the spelling alone.

Short references

• British Council — LearnEnglish, Determiners and quantifiers, s.d. (version consultée en 2026).
• British Council — LearnEnglish, Specific and general determiners, s.d. (version consultée en 2026).
• British Council — LearnEnglish, Articles: a, an, the, s.d. (version consultée en 2026).

Some stative verbs resist progressive aspect: know, believe, belong. Meaning can change: “I think it is fair” (opinion) versus “I am thinking about it” (activity).

• remember to do = remember a required action; remember doing = recall.
• stop to do = pause in order to; stop doing = discontinue.
• try to do = attempt; try doing = experiment.

Present perfect, past simple and time expressions

Future forms

Time clauses: after when, before, after, as soon as, until, once, by the time and in if-clauses, a present form replaces the future: “I will call you when I arrive.” “By the time we finish, it will have closed.”

Past perfect and sequence

The past perfect marks the earlier of two past events: “When the inspector arrived, the lesson had already started.” With after, before or as soon as, the order is clear from the conjunction, so the past simple is acceptable: “After she left, we began.”

Verbs with both gerund and infinitive

• Bare infinitive: after modals and after let, make, help (+ object): “She made them rewrite it.” In the passive, to returns: “They were made to rewrite it.”
• used to / be used to / get used to: “She used to teach maths” (past habit); “She is used to teaching large classes” (accustomed; gerund).
• Perception verbs: “I saw him leave” (complete action); “I saw him leaving” (in progress).

Modal perfect pattern: modal + have + past participle.

• must have forgotten: strong past deduction.
• might have missed: possible past event.
• should have checked: criticism/regret.
• needn’t have printed: it happened but was unnecessary.
• could have applied: unrealized possibility.

Modals as a system of meaning, not a list of forms

For a lycée-level English knowledge examination, modal verbs should be handled through the relationship between form, meaning, speaker stance and context. Learners often memorize that can means ability, must means obligation and may means possibility, but authentic English is less mechanical. The same modal can serve more than one function, and closely related forms can differ in strength, source of obligation, politeness, time reference or register. A strong answer therefore identifies the communicative function first, then explains why a particular modal or semi-modal is appropriate.

Core modal verbs include can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will and would. They are followed by the base form of the verb, do not normally take -s in the third person singular, and form negatives directly with not. English also uses modal-like expressions such as have to, need to, be able to, be allowed to and be supposed to. These are especially important when a meaning must be expressed in a tense or structure for which a core modal is unavailable or unnatural.

1. Function, strength and source

The distinction between must not and do not have to is particularly important. “You must not use your phone during the test” means phone use is prohibited. “You do not have to bring a dictionary” means bringing one is not required. Confusing the two reverses the practical meaning of an instruction.

2. Time reference and modal perfects

Modal meaning interacts with time in several ways. Some core modals have limited tense behavior, so English frequently uses alternative constructions. For past obligation, for example, had to is normally used rather than a past form of must: “We had to submit the project on Friday.” For future ability, “will be able to” is often clearer than trying to force can into a future form.

Modal perfect structures use modal + have + past participle. They allow speakers to evaluate past situations from a later viewpoint. “She must have forgotten the deadline” expresses a strong deduction about a past event. “They might have taken the wrong bus” expresses past possibility. “You should have checked the source” usually expresses criticism or regret about an action that was advisable but did not occur. “He could have applied” may indicate a past possibility or opportunity that was not taken, depending on context.

A frequent exam error is to interpret the form only through dictionary equivalents. In “He must be at school by now,” must does not impose an obligation; it expresses deduction. In “You must see this film,” the form can function as an emphatic recommendation rather than a literal rule. Meaning is reconstructed from the proposition, situation and speaker intention.

3. Politeness and interpersonal meaning

Modals are central to pragmatic competence because they help speakers manage distance, authority and politeness. Compare: “Open the window,” “Can you open the window?”, “Could you open the window?” and “Would you mind opening the window?” The grammatical forms do not simply change time; they change the interpersonal force of the request. Could in a polite request is not necessarily past time.

The same principle applies in classroom discourse. A teacher saying “You may begin” grants permission in a relatively formal way. “You can begin” is also possible and more conversational. “You should begin with question two” is advice or recommendation. “You must begin with question two” presents it as a requirement. Accurate interpretation depends on recognizing the authority relationship and communicative purpose.

4. A decision procedure for exam questions

1. Identify the time reference: present, past, future or timeless rule.
2. Identify the function: ability, permission, obligation, advice, possibility, deduction, willingness or request.
3. Estimate the strength: weak possibility, strong inference, optional advice or compulsory rule.
4. Check polarity: obligation, prohibition and absence of obligation are different meanings.
5. Check whether a core modal can express the required tense; if not, consider a semi-modal such as have to or be able to.
6. Read the social context: formal notice, teacher instruction, friendly suggestion and speculative comment do not use modals in the same way.

Moroccan classroom example

A teacher is preparing instructions for a computer-based English project. “Students must save their work under their candidate number” expresses a compulsory procedure. “They do not have to print the file” removes an obligation. “They may consult the approved online dictionary” grants permission. “They should check the credibility of each website” gives advice unless the teacher explicitly turns it into an assessed requirement. “The server might be unavailable for a few minutes” expresses possibility. Using several modals in one authentic instruction sheet helps learners notice how modality organizes rules, options and uncertainty.

Frequent errors / points of vigilance

• Adding -s after a core modal: not “she cans”, but “she can”.
• Using to after a core modal: not “must to go”, but “must go”.
• Confusing must not with do not have to.
• Treating could as past time in every sentence.
• Using must as the ordinary past form for completed past obligation instead of had to.
• Assuming that may, might and could always correspond to fixed numerical probabilities.
• Ignoring the difference between deontic meaning, such as obligation, and epistemic meaning, such as deduction.

Application activity with answers

Choose or explain the best form. (1) Yesterday, candidates ___ leave their bags outside the room. (2) You ___ share your password with anyone; it is prohibited. (3) Nadia is not answering; she ___ be in class, but I am not sure. (4) The lights are off and the door is locked. They ___ have left already. (5) You ___ revise the examples before the test; it would help.

Answers: (1) had to, because the sentence expresses completed past obligation. (2) must not or mustn’t, because the action is forbidden. (3) may/might/could, because the speaker expresses uncertain possibility. (4) must in “must have left”, because the evidence supports a strong deduction about the past. (5) should, because this is advice rather than a compulsory rule.

Key points

• Modal verbs express stance and communicative force, not only tense or dictionary meaning.
• One modal may serve several functions, so context is decisive.
• Must not means prohibition; do not have to means lack of necessity.
• Semi-modals extend meanings into tenses that core modals cannot easily express.
• Modal perfects evaluate past events through deduction, possibility, regret or criticism.
• Politeness uses forms such as could and would without necessarily referring to past time.
• Good exam analysis moves from function and context to form, not from an isolated translation to meaning.

Short references

• British Council — LearnEnglish, Modals: permission and obligation, s.d. (version consultée en 2026).
• British Council — LearnEnglish, Suggestions and obligations, s.d. (version consultée en 2026).
• British Council — LearnEnglish, Modals: probability, s.d. (version consultée en 2026).

Chapter objectives

• Control countability, number and possession.
• Maintain clear reference and agreement.
• Distinguish major pronoun classes.

• Count: a criterion/two criteria; an analysis/several analyses.
• Non-count: evidence, feedback, progress, knowledge.
• Collective: team, committee, staff; agreement may reflect unit or members and varies by variety.
• Compound: the head is usually final: two classroom observation reports.

Use a reflexive when subject and object are the same: "She assessed herself." Use it emphatically: "The director herself answered." Do not use it as a formal substitute for me: contact Ahmed or myself → contact Ahmed or me.

Case: subject, object and possessive

Personal pronouns change form with grammatical role: subject (I, she, they), object (me, her, them) and possessive (mine, hers, theirs). The object form is required after a preposition or as a verb's object, even when the pronoun is coordinated with a noun: "The head office informed Karim and her," not Karim and she. In comparisons, the strict form depends on the implied verb: "She scored higher than he [did]" is stricter than the common informal "than him."

Possessive determiner versus possessive pronoun

A possessive determiner precedes a noun: "her report, their decision." A possessive pronoun stands alone and replaces the whole noun phrase: "The report is hers; the decision is theirs." Possessive pronouns never take an apostrophe: "This is hers," not her's.

Indefinite pronoun compounds

Compounds with some-, any-, no-, every- combine with -one, -body, -thing, -where. Use some- compounds commonly in affirmative statements and offers, and any- compounds commonly in questions and negatives; context can override this tendency (for example, anyone may apply): "Is anyone available?" "No one answered." These pronouns take a singular verb, though general reference often continues with a plural pronoun: "Everyone submitted their form."

Common errors

• Using a subject pronoun after a preposition: "between you and I" should be "between you and me."
• Confusing "its" (possessive) with "it's" (contraction of "it is").
• Leaving a bare "this" or "that" without a following noun where several ideas could be the antecedent.

For consolidation and review

• Choose pronoun case by grammatical role, not by position or habit.
• Possessive determiners precede a noun; possessive pronouns replace it and take no apostrophe.
• Choose some-/any- compounds by meaning and context, not sentence type alone.
• Set off non-restrictive appositives with commas; leave restrictive ones unmarked.

Related modules

• ELT Didactics — English Language Teaching
• Sciences de l'éducation et didactique
• Psychologie de l'éducation
• Évaluation et curriculum
• Recherche éducative

Chapter objectives

• Choose prepositions of time, place, movement and abstract relation.
• Learn dependent prepositions as lexical patterns.
• Distinguish prepositions from particles.

Learn dependent patterns as units: responsible for, interested in, capable of, comply with, depend on, contribute to, distinguish between, object to. A preposition takes a noun phrase or gerund: "object to changing the procedure."

Agent, instrument and means

By introduces the agent of a passive action ("scored by the panel"); with introduces an instrument ("opened with a key"); through or by means of introduces a method or channel ("distributed through the regional office").

Prepositions after adjectives and in comparison

Many adjectives select a fixed preposition: married to, different from, similar to, aware of, satisfied with, keen on. British usage also allows different to; American usage strongly prefers different from; different than appears mainly before a clause ("different than it used to be").

Fronting versus stranding

Informal usage places the preposition at the end of a question or relative clause: "What are you looking for?"; "the criteria [that] we agreed on." Formal and written registers may front it instead: "For what purpose?"; "the criteria on which we agreed." Fronting requires which/whom, never that or a stranded gap.

Exception and addition

Except (for), apart from, besides, in addition to narrow or extend a set: "All members attended except the treasurer." Besides means "in addition to," while except means "excluding" — a frequent point of confusion.

Common errors

• "Married with" instead of "married to."
• Dropping or misselecting the dependent preposition: "depend of" instead of "depend on."
• Confusing "besides" (in addition to) with "except" (excluding).

For consolidation and review

• Match by/with/through to agent, instrument or method.
• Learn each adjective's fixed preposition as a chunk, not by translation.
• Choose fronted or stranded position by register.
• Distinguish besides from except before using either.

Related modules

• ELT Didactics — English Language Teaching
• Sciences de l'éducation et didactique
• Psychologie de l'éducation
• Évaluation et curriculum
• Recherche éducative

Chapter objectives

• Coordinate equal units.
• Subordinate clauses for logical relations.
• Use correlative structures in parallel form.

Maintain parallelism: "both identifying errors and explaining corrections", not "both identifying errors and an explanation of corrections."

• Independent clause + comma + coordinating conjunction + independent clause.
• Independent clause + semicolon + conjunctive adverb + comma + independent clause.
• Introductory dependent clause + comma + independent clause.

Because vs. because of; although vs. despite

Because and although introduce a clause with a subject and a verb: "Because the results varied, the committee postponed the decision." Because of and despite/in spite of take a noun phrase, not a clause: "Despite the delay, the report was accepted." Do not follow despite with a full clause introduced by that.

Result and degree: so…that, such…that

So + adjective/adverb + that and such + (a/an) + noun + that express result: "The evidence was so limited that the panel requested more data." "It was such a limited sample that the panel requested more data."

Comma placement with subordinate clauses

An introductory dependent clause is followed by a comma: "Although the sample was small, the trend was clear." When the dependent clause follows the independent clause, the comma is usually omitted: "The trend was clear although the sample was small."

Common errors

• Using "because of" before a full clause: "because of the results varied" should be "because the results varied."
• The redundant construction "the reason is because," better written as "the reason is that" or simply "because."
• Joining two independent clauses with a comma alone instead of a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon.

For consolidation and review

• Choose a clause-taking connector (because, although) or a phrase-taking one (because of, despite) according to what follows.
• Use so…that with adjectives/adverbs and such…that with nouns.
• Comma an introductory dependent clause; usually omit the comma when it follows.
• Avoid comma splices and the "reason is because" redundancy.

Related modules

• ELT Didactics — English Language Teaching
• Sciences de l'éducation et didactique
• Psychologie de l'éducation
• Évaluation et curriculum
• Recherche éducative

• A phrase has a head but no full subject–finite verb relation: the carefully revised policy.
• A finite clause contains tense/modality: the committee revised the policy.
• A non-finite clause uses infinitive/participle: to improve access; having reviewed the data.

Simple: one independent clause. Compound: two or more independent clauses. Complex: independent + dependent. Compound-complex: at least two independent + dependent.

Restrictive relative clauses identify the noun and usually have no commas. Non-restrictive clauses add supplementary information and use commas; standard usage does not use that in them.

Relative pronouns and reduced relatives

• The relative pronoun may be omitted when it is the object of the clause: “The plan (that) the team proposed.” It cannot be omitted as subject: “The plan that failed.”
• Reduced relative clauses: “The students sitting at the back” (= who are sitting); “The report submitted yesterday” (= which was submitted); “A policy to reduce costs.”
• A preposition can precede whom/which in formal style: “the committee to which she belongs.”

Noun clauses and their markers

Noun clauses begin with that (statement), if/whether (yes/no question), or a wh-word: “That the sample was small is clear”; “We asked whether the data were reliable”; “What she proposed is feasible.” Within a noun clause, word order is that of a statement.

Adverbial clauses by meaning

Non-finite clauses

• To-infinitive: “She came to collect the results” (purpose).
• -ing participle: “Having reviewed the data, the team revised the plan” (earlier action; the subject of the participle must be the subject of the main clause).
• -ed participle: “Faced with a deadline, they worked overnight.”

Repairing fragments, run-ons and comma splices

Chapter objectives

• Form passive constructions across tenses and modals.
• Choose passive according to focus.
• Recognize reporting and causative patterns.

Pattern: subject + BE in the required form + past participle (+ by-agent).

• Unknown agent: "The window was broken."
• Obvious/irrelevant agent: "Results will be announced."
• Topical process: "Each application is scored twice."
• Impersonal reporting: "It is believed that…" / "The reform is believed to…"

Have/get something done means arrange for someone else to act: "The school had the network repaired." Get + participle is often less formal and event-focused.

Ditransitive verbs: two possible passives

Verbs with an indirect and a direct object allow two passive subjects: "The board gave the candidates feedback" becomes either "The candidates were given feedback" (usual, person-focused) or "Feedback was given to the candidates" (item-focused, with to restored).

Passive infinitives and gerunds

Non-finite passives follow modal and reporting patterns: "The form needs to be signed." "Being asked to revise the plan surprised no one." With modal perfect forms: "The error should have been corrected earlier."

By versus with

By introduces the agent that performs the action; with introduces an instrument used by that agent: "The document was signed by the director with a digital certificate."

When to avoid the passive

Overusing the passive can obscure responsibility or add unnecessary length. Prefer the active voice when the agent is known and relevant: "The committee rejected the proposal" is clearer than "The proposal was rejected." Keep the passive when the process, not the agent, is the point.

Common errors

• Omitting the auxiliary "be": "The form completed" instead of "The form was completed."
• Using an object pronoun in place of the passive subject: "Him was informed" instead of "He was informed."
• Overusing the passive in instructions where an active imperative would be clearer.

Tense map: active to passive

Verbs that cannot be passivized

• Intransitive verbs have no object to promote: happen, occur, arrive, appear, exist, die (“The accident was happened” is wrong).
• Stative verbs such as have (possession), fit, suit, resemble, lack rarely take a passive: “He has a car” does not become “A car is had by him.”

Passive with prepositional and phrasal verbs

The preposition or particle stays with the verb: “They looked into the complaint” → “The complaint was looked into.” “She called off the meeting” → “The meeting was called off.”

Impersonal reporting structures

• It is said / believed / reported that + clause: “It is reported that the scheme failed.”
• Subject + is said to + infinitive: “The scheme is said to have failed” (perfect infinitive for an earlier event).

Questions and negatives

The auxiliary precedes the subject in questions: “Was the form signed by the director?” Negatives place not after the first auxiliary: “The results have not been published.”

For consolidation and review

• Ditransitive verbs allow two passive subjects; the person-focused one is more common.
• Non-finite passives (to be + participle, being + participle) follow the same be + participle logic.
• By marks the agent; with marks the instrument.
• Choose active or passive by what the sentence needs to foreground.

Related modules

• ELT Didactics — English Language Teaching
• Sciences de l'éducation et didactique
• Psychologie de l'éducation
• Évaluation et curriculum
• Recherche éducative

Backshift is common after a past reporting verb: present → past; present perfect/past → past perfect; will → would; can → could. It may be unnecessary for still-valid facts or immediate reporting.

• Reported questions use statement order: “He asked where the meeting was.”
• Yes/no questions use if/whether.
• Commands/requests: tell/ask/order/warn + object + (not) to-infinitive.

Backshift in full

Deixis: time, place and person words

When the reporting situation differs from the original, the reference words shift: now → then, today → that day, tonight → that night, yesterday → the day before / the previous day, tomorrow → the next day / the following day, last week → the week before, next week → the following week, ago → before, here → there, this → that, these → those. Pronouns follow the new speaker: “I will send my report” → “He said he would send his report.”

Reported questions and requests

• No inversion and no question mark: “Where is the room?” → “She asked where the room was.” Not “…where was the room.”
• wh-questions keep the wh-word; yes/no questions take if or whether: “Did you sign?” → “He asked if/whether I had signed.” Whether is preferred before or not and after prepositions.
• Do-support disappears: “Do you teach history?” → “She asked if I taught history.”
• Requests and offers: “Could you send the file?” → “She asked me to send the file.” “Shall I open the window?” → “He offered to open the window.”
• Suggestions: “Let’s revise it.” → “She suggested revising it” or “…that we (should) revise it.” Suggest is never followed by object + to-infinitive.

say, tell, ask

Tell requires a person object (told us); say does not (said that, said to us); ask introduces questions or requests. “He said me” and “She told that” are errors.

When backshift is optional

Keep the original tense when the statement is still true or relevant at the time of reporting (“The minister said the exam takes place in June”), when the reporting verb is present or present perfect (“She says it is full”), and with general truths (“He explained that water boils at 100°C”).

Alternatives: unless = if not; provided that, as long as; inversion: “Had they known, they would have acted.” In case expresses precaution, not the same condition as if.

• wish + past: unsatisfactory present.
• wish + past perfect: past regret.
• wish + would: desired change, often irritation.
• wish + could: desired ability/possibility.

Modals and variations in the main clause

The result clause is not limited to will/would. A modal expresses degree of certainty or permission: “If the funding arrives, we may extend the programme” (possibility); “If you finish early, you can leave” (permission); “If they had warned us, we could have prepared” (missed possibility); “If I were you, I should check the totals” (advice).

Mixed conditionals

Formal and special patterns

• Inversion replaces if: Had they known…; Were she here…; Should you need help… (= If you should need help).
• Were to marks a remote supposition: “If the school were to close, pupils would transfer.”
• Unless = if … not and refers to the only exception: “We will start unless it rains.” It is unnatural in the counterfactual past (“We would have won unless…” is rare) and is not used when the result is an emotional reaction (“I’ll be glad if she doesn’t come”).
• Provided/providing (that), as long as, on condition that state a requirement: “You may enter provided you show a pass.”
• In case = as a precaution: “Take a copy in case the file is lost.” It does not mean if.
• Otherwise / or else express an implied condition: “Submit now; otherwise you will lose the place.”
• Will/would in the if-clause is avoided except for politeness or insistence: “If you will wait a moment, I’ll call him.”
• Suppose/supposing, what if introduce hypotheses: “Supposing the server failed, what would you do?”

Wishes and related structures

Form and function may differ. “Can you open the window?” is grammatically a question about ability but pragmatically a request. “You might want to check the total” is tactful advice or warning.

More functions and their typical exponents

Softening, hedging and indirectness

• Past forms and modals: I wondered if you could…; Would you mind…?; Could I possibly…?
• Hedges: somewhat, rather, a little, it appears that, to some extent.
• Negative questions: “Wouldn’t it be better to wait?” suggests, rather than commands.
• Impersonal passive: “It is recommended that the form be completed.”

Matching language to context

Responses

Some responses are expected pairs: apology → acceptance (“I’m sorry.” — “That’s all right.”); thanks → reception (“Thank you.” — “My pleasure.”); offer → acceptance/refusal (“Shall I carry it?” — “That’s very kind, but I can manage.”); compliment → modest acceptance. A response that ignores the pair (replying “Yes, it is” to a thank-you) is pragmatically odd.

• Derivation: educate → education → educational.
• Inflection: teach → teaches/taught/teaching.
• Compounding: classroom, feedback cycle, data-driven.
• Conversion: email noun → verb without an affix.
• Clipping/blending/acronymy: lab, webinar, UNESCO.

Word-class ambiguity and conversion

One form may belong to several classes; its syntax decides. “A round table” (adjective), “a round of talks” (noun), “they round the figures” (verb), “come round” (adverb/particle). Some pairs differ by stress: REcord (noun) / reCORD (verb); PREsent / preSENT; OBject / obJECT.

More affixes

Spelling changes when adding suffixes

• Final -e drops before a vowel suffix: create → creative, but is kept before a consonant suffix: achieve → achievement.
• Consonant + -y becomes -i: apply → application, happy → happiness.
• Single final consonant doubles after a stressed short vowel: refer → referred but offer → offered.

Nouns: countability and plurals

• Uncountable: information, advice, research, equipment, feedback, furniture, knowledge — no plural form and no a/an; use a piece of, some, much.
• Irregular plurals: child → children, criterion → criteria, phenomenon → phenomena, analysis → analyses, datum → data.
• Plural-only or collective forms: scissors, trousers, police (plural verb), news (singular verb).

Compounds

Compounds may be written solid (classroom), hyphenated (data-driven, well-known) or open (feedback cycle). The stress usually falls on the first element in noun compounds (BLACKboard = a board for writing; black BOARD = a board that is black). Compound modifiers before a noun are hyphenated and singular: “a five-year plan” but “the plan lasts five years.”

Phrase structure: head, complement and modifier

A phrase is organized around a head, which determines its grammatical category. In “the extremely useful diagnostic report,” report is the noun head, the is a determiner, and extremely useful is an adjective phrase functioning as a modifier. A complement is selected or required by the head, whereas a modifier adds optional information: compare the analysis of the results, where the prepositional phrase completes the meaning of analysis, with the analysis from last year, which adds time-related identification.

Form is not function

The same form can perform different functions. A noun phrase may be a subject, object or complement; an adjective phrase may modify a noun or serve as a subject complement. Analysis must therefore answer two separate questions: What kind of unit is this? and What job does it do here?

Core clause patterns

Complement versus adjunct

A complement is licensed by the head and may be necessary for the intended sense; an adjunct is more freely added and can usually be repeated. “She put the file on the desk” requires a location complement, but “She read the file after lunch in the library” contains optional time and place adjuncts. Deleting an element is useful evidence, but meaning and verb pattern must also be considered.

Three practical constituency tests

• Substitution: a sequence that can be replaced by a pronoun or pro-form may form a constituent: “the detailed report” → “it.”
• Movement: some constituents can move together: “After the meeting, the panel voted” → “The panel voted after the meeting.”
• Coordination: units of the same type can often coordinate: “after the meeting and before lunch.”

Coordination and subordination

Coordination joins units of equal status: “The panel reviewed the file and issued a decision.” Subordination embeds one clause inside another: “The panel issued a decision after it reviewed the file.” A finite clause normally carries tense or a modal; a non-finite clause uses an infinitive or participle without independent tense: “They expect to finish”; “Having checked the file, they signed it.”

Structural ambiguity and common errors

• “The supervisor discussed the report with the teacher” may mean that the teacher participated in the discussion or that the report concerned the teacher; rewrite if context does not resolve the attachment.
• A dangling non-finite clause lacks the intended subject: “After reviewing the file, the error was obvious” should become “After reviewing the file, the panel noticed the error.”
• Do not label every phrase after a verb an object: in “She became a coordinator,” a coordinator is a subject complement.

For consolidation and review

• The head determines phrase category; complements and modifiers have different relations to it.
• Form and function are separate dimensions of analysis.
• Clause patterns depend on the verb's complementation.
• Use several constituency tests and rewrite structural ambiguity when it affects meaning.

Chapter objectives

• Identify discourse mode.
• Recognize mitigation and intensification.
• Evaluate register and interpersonal effect.

Mitigation: perhaps, somewhat, may, appears, I am afraid, could you. Intensification: clearly, absolutely, entirely, must, deeply.

Politeness strategies

Negative politeness minimizes imposition through distance and hedging: "Would you mind reviewing this again?" Positive politeness appeals to a shared goal or solidarity: "We both want this to go smoothly, so could we adjust the deadline?" A past-tense modal often softens a request further: "I was wondering if you could send the file."

Reporting denial and objection

Deny takes a gerund or a that-clause, never a to-infinitive: "He denied missing the deadline," not denied to miss. Refuse takes a to-infinitive: "She refused to sign the form." Object to takes a noun phrase or gerund: "They object to changing the schedule."

Hedging verbs and evidential markers

Verbs such as seem, appear, tend to, suggest present a claim as provisional rather than certain: "The data seem to indicate a decline" is more cautious than "The data show a decline." Evidential markers such as reportedly, according to distance the speaker from full responsibility for a claim.

Common errors

• "Denied to attend" instead of "denied attending."
• Mixing intensifiers and hedges in the same clause, which produces contradictory certainty: "It clearly may be the case."
• Choosing a register too informal, or too aggressive, for a formal complaint or report.

For consolidation and review

• Match verb form to the reporting verb: deny + gerund/that-clause, refuse + to-infinitive.
• Use negative or positive politeness strategies according to the relationship and the imposition.
• Hedges and evidential markers lower commitment; intensifiers raise it — do not combine them in the same claim.
• Keep register consistent with the communicative situation.

Related modules

• ELT Didactics — English Language Teaching
• Sciences de l'éducation et didactique
• Psychologie de l'éducation
• Évaluation et curriculum
• Recherche éducative

• British usage more readily uses plural agreement with collective nouns when emphasizing members; American usage more often uses singular.
• Have got is especially common in British informal possession.
• Recent-event present-perfect versus past-simple preferences can differ.

British and American English: variation within one language

British English and American English are not two separate grammatical systems. They are major groups of varieties that share the overwhelming majority of their vocabulary and grammar while differing in pronunciation, spelling, lexical choice, frequency of some grammatical structures and cultural conventions. Cambridge Grammar notes that many contrasts are matters of preference or frequency rather than absolute rules, and that differences are generally fewer in writing than in speech. For an examination candidate, the safest approach is therefore descriptive: recognize recurrent patterns, avoid stereotypes, and distinguish a genuine variety difference from an individual style choice.

Another important point is internal diversity. “British English” includes regional and social variation across the United Kingdom, while “American English” includes substantial variation across the United States. A form labelled BrE or AmE in a learner dictionary usually means “more typical or conventional in that broad variety,” not “used by every speaker.” Global media and the Internet also produce continuous borrowing across varieties. Consistency is usually more important than pretending that varieties are sealed systems.

1. Lexical contrasts and semantic traps

The British Council uses contrasts such as lift/elevator, pavement/sidewalk, film/movie and the different meanings of chips to illustrate how vocabulary varies. In teaching, such pairs should be presented in context, not as isolated translation equations. A Moroccan learner reading “a bag of chips” in an American text should not automatically imagine the same item as “a portion of chips” in a British restaurant.

2. Spelling patterns: useful conventions, not perfect algorithms

Several spelling differences are highly visible. BrE often uses -our where AmE commonly uses -or: colour/color, behaviour/behavior. BrE commonly has -re in words such as centre and metre, while AmE has center and meter. Many BrE words use -ise or -ize depending on house style, whereas AmE strongly favors -ize. BrE commonly doubles l in forms such as travelling, while AmE usually has traveling.

These are patterns with exceptions and institutional preferences. Oxford-style British spelling, for example, accepts many -ize forms, so “-ise is British and -ize is American” is too crude. Examination answers should use examples that are genuinely stable and should not mark a form wrong merely because the other variety is more familiar. The key principle is internal consistency when a task asks for one variety.

3. Grammar and usage differences

Grammar differences usually concern frequency and preferred constructions. With recently completed actions, BrE often prefers the present perfect where AmE may more readily use the simple past: “Have you eaten yet?” versus the very common American “Did you eat yet?” Both varieties have both tenses, so the difference is one of distribution rather than possession of separate grammatical rules.

Collective nouns can also differ. In BrE, a collective noun such as team or government may take singular or plural agreement depending on whether the group is viewed as a unit or as members: “The team is winning” or “The team are wearing new shirts.” AmE more strongly favors singular agreement with such nouns in ordinary usage. Another familiar contrast concerns got/gotten: AmE retains gotten as a past participle in some meanings, while standard BrE generally uses got, except in lexicalized expressions such as ill-gotten.

Prepositions and verb patterns also show preferences: BrE commonly says “at the weekend,” while AmE commonly says “on the weekend.” BrE “write to someone” corresponds to frequent AmE “write someone.” These examples are useful precisely because they show that correctness depends partly on the chosen variety and communicative context.

4. Pronunciation and cultural conventions

Pronunciation differences are extensive and cannot be reduced to one accent. One broad contrast is rhoticity: many mainstream American accents pronounce /r/ after a vowel in words such as car, while many accents in England are non-rhotic. Yet several British varieties are rhotic, so the contrast must not be turned into an absolute rule. Stress may also differ in individual words, and vowel systems vary considerably within both countries.

Cultural-linguistic competence includes conventions beyond pronunciation. Dates are a classic example: 04/07 can be read as 4 July in a British-style day/month system and April 7 in the common American month/day system. This is not a trivial vocabulary issue; in international communication it can create administrative ambiguity. Writing the month in letters is safer when the audience is mixed. School terms, university terminology, transport vocabulary and public institutions likewise reflect cultural systems, so learners should ask what reality a word refers to rather than merely substituting a synonym.

A Moroccan classroom procedure

1. Give learners a short British news-style text and an American text on the same everyday topic.
2. Ask them to underline differences and classify each as vocabulary, spelling, grammar, pronunciation-related transcription, or cultural reference.
3. Require evidence from context before assigning a label; not every difference is a BrE/AmE difference.
4. Have pairs rewrite a short paragraph consistently in the other variety.
5. End with a reflection on intelligibility: which differences could cause misunderstanding, and which are mainly stylistic?

For example, students may transform “The students are travelling to the city centre during the holiday” into an American-style version such as “The students are traveling to downtown/the city center during vacation,” while discussing why lexical replacement is not always one-to-one. The aim is comparative awareness rather than imitation of an accent.

Frequent errors / points of vigilance

• Claiming that one variety is more correct, pure or modern than the other.
• Treating every contrast as absolute: many forms occur in both varieties with different frequencies.
• Mixing vocabulary without noticing semantic traps such as chips, pants or public school.
• Assuming all British speakers share one accent or all Americans speak identically.
• Overgeneralizing spelling rules and forgetting exceptions or institutional styles.
• Penalizing a learner simply for using a recognized form from the other standard variety when the task did not require consistency.
• Ignoring cultural conventions such as date formats, educational terminology and measurements.

Application activity with answers

Task: Identify the most likely variety marker and explain it: (1) “I left my bag in the boot of the car.” (2) “She lives on the second floor.” (3) “Have you finished your homework yet?” (4) “The color of the theater walls has changed.” (5) “We met at the weekend.”

Answers: (1) boot for the storage compartment is characteristically BrE; AmE commonly uses trunk. (2) This sentence is not enough on its own to determine the variety, and floor numbering can also differ culturally by building convention; more context is needed. (3) The present perfect with yet is common in both and especially characteristic of standard BrE preference; it is not exclusively British. (4) color and theater are standard American spellings. (5) at the weekend is a common BrE preference; AmE commonly uses on the weekend.

Key points

• British and American English are overlapping sets of varieties, not separate languages.
• Vocabulary and pronunciation show many differences; grammar differences are often differences of frequency.
• Spelling patterns are useful but include exceptions and style choices.
• Context is essential because some words have different meanings across varieties.
• Cultural conventions such as dates and educational terms can affect interpretation.
• Variation exists within Britain and the United States, so broad labels must be used cautiously.
• For learners, intelligibility, awareness and consistency are more useful goals than rigid policing of one variety.

Short references

• Cambridge University Press & Assessment, British and American English — English Grammar Today, s.d. (version consultée en 2026).
• British Council — LearnEnglish, How to understand the differences between British and American English, 2019.

Chapter objectives

• Interpret meaning in context.
• Distinguish near-synonyms by connotation, register and collocation.
• Recognize major semantic relations.

Near-synonyms differ in denotation, connotation, register, grammar and collocation. Slim and skinny both imply thinness, but often have different evaluations. Ask and inquire/enquire differ in formality.

Writing a precise definition

A formal definition names the genus (the general category) and the differentia (what distinguishes the term within that category): "A rubric [genus: a scoring tool] that lists criteria and performance levels for judging a task [differentia]." Avoid circular definitions that reuse the defined word, and avoid a genus that is too broad or too narrow for the category.

Gradable versus complementary antonyms

Gradable antonyms allow degrees and comparison: hot/cold, easy/difficult. Complementary antonyms are binary; denying one asserts the other: pass/fail, alive/dead — "not dead" means "alive." Converse pairs describe one relation seen from two sides: lend/borrow, teacher/student.

Co-hyponyms

Terms sharing the same immediate superordinate category are co-hyponyms: oak, pine and birch are co-hyponyms of tree. Co-hyponyms are typically mutually exclusive in a single reference: something cannot be both an oak and a pine.

Common errors

• Writing a circular definition, e.g. defining "assessment" as "the process of assessing."
• Treating a complementary antonym as gradable: "very dead" is not standard.
• Choosing a near-synonym without checking register or collocation, e.g. "commence" in casual conversation.

For consolidation and review

• A definition needs both a genus and a differentia; avoid circularity.
• Distinguish gradable, complementary and converse antonym pairs.
• Co-hyponyms share a superordinate but exclude each other.
• Check register and collocation before choosing between near-synonyms.

Related modules

• ELT Didactics — English Language Teaching
• Sciences de l'éducation et didactique
• Psychologie de l'éducation
• Évaluation et curriculum
• Recherche éducative

Chapter objectives

• Recognize conventional word partnerships.
• Distinguish grammatical possibility from idiomatic choice.
• Record vocabulary in chunks.

Delexical verbs

Have, make, take, do, give combine with many nouns while contributing little independent meaning of their own: have a look, make an effort, take a break, do damage, give a presentation. The noun, not the verb, carries the main meaning, so substituting the wrong delexical verb is a frequent error: do an effort is incorrect; make an effort is standard.

Fixed binomials

Some word pairs are fixed in order and function almost as single units: terms and conditions, cause and effect, trial and error, safe and sound. Reversing the order sounds unnatural even though both words remain individually grammatical.

Collocational strength

Some combinations are near-obligatory (strong coffee, rarely powerful coffee), while others tolerate several near-synonyms (big/large/major problem). Record which combinations are fixed and which allow variation.

Common errors

• Choosing a grammatically possible but unidiomatic verb: "do a mistake" instead of "make a mistake."
• Reversing a fixed binomial: "conditions and terms" instead of "terms and conditions."
• Assuming a word-for-word translation from another language produces a natural collocation.

For consolidation and review

• Learn delexical verb + noun pairs as fixed chunks.
• Keep fixed binomials in their conventional order.
• Note which collocations are rigid and which allow near-synonym substitution.
• Never assume a literal translation will be idiomatic.

Related modules

• ELT Didactics — English Language Teaching
• Sciences de l'éducation et didactique
• Psychologie de l'éducation
• Évaluation et curriculum
• Recherche éducative

Multi-word verbs: the key distinctions

A multi-word verb combines a lexical verb with one or more particles or prepositions and functions as a unit in the clause. The label is broader than phrasal verb. A useful analysis distinguishes three major patterns: phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs, and phrasal-prepositional verbs. This distinction matters because word order, object placement and stress behave differently across the patterns.

Transitivity and separability

Some phrasal verbs are intransitive: The printer broke down. Others take an object. With many separable transitive phrasal verbs, a noun object may appear before or after the particle: turn the form in / turn in the form. An unstressed object pronoun normally comes between the verb and particle: turn it in, not turn in it. Prepositional verbs do not allow the same movement because the preposition introduces its complement: look at the chart, not look the chart at.

Meaning is not always fully idiomatic

Some combinations are transparent, while others are partly or strongly idiomatic. Learners should therefore record the whole construction together with its meaning, grammar and a typical context. Teaching only a one-word synonym can hide important information about register and complementation.

Classroom procedure

1. Identify the verb and following item or items.
2. Ask whether an object is required.
3. Test whether a noun object can move across the particle.
4. Replace the noun with a pronoun and check its position.
5. Use the expression in a new sentence that makes the meaning clear.

Common errors

• Calling every verb + preposition sequence a phrasal verb.
• Moving the object of a prepositional verb as if the verb were separable.
• Placing a pronoun after the particle in a separable phrasal verb.
• Memorising meanings without the syntactic pattern.

Related modules

• ELT Didactics — English Language Teaching
• Sciences de l’éducation et didactique
• Psychologie de l’éducation
• Évaluation et curriculum
• Recherche éducative

For consolidation and review

• Multi-word verb is the umbrella term.
• Distinguish particle from preposition by the construction, not by spelling alone.
• Learn meaning, transitivity, separability and object position together.
• Use substitution and movement tests on short original examples.

Chapter objectives

• Recognize figurative meaning.
• Match idioms to register and context.
• Avoid overusing idioms in formal prose.

Why idioms resist literal analysis

An idiom's meaning cannot usually be predicted from its individual words: cut corners does not literally involve corners. Idioms also resist free grammatical change: most cannot be freely reordered without losing the figurative meaning, and some tolerate the passive better than others — "corners were cut" still works, but changing the fixed noun number often does not: "the corner was cut" loses the idiomatic sense.

Further idioms for professional and academic contexts

Strategy: literal first, then figurative

When an idiom does not make sense literally in context, check whether the surrounding sentence signals a figurative reading — often through contrast, evaluation or an abstract subject. Confirm the meaning from context rather than guessing from a partial resemblance to a known phrase.

Common errors

• Translating an idiom word for word from another language, which rarely preserves the meaning.
• Altering fixed wording, e.g. "back to the square one" instead of "back to square one."
• Using an informal idiom in a formal written report where a neutral term is expected.

For consolidation and review

• Idiom meaning is not derivable word by word; learn the whole expression.
• Most idioms have fixed wording and limited grammatical flexibility.
• Use context, not literal translation, to confirm meaning.
• Match the idiom's register to the writing task.

Related modules

• ELT Didactics — English Language Teaching
• Sciences de l'éducation et didactique
• Psychologie de l'éducation
• Évaluation et curriculum
• Recherche éducative

A paragraph as a unit of development

A paragraph is not defined by a fixed number of sentences. In academic writing, it normally develops one controlling idea and helps the reader see how that idea contributes to the larger purpose of the text. A strong paragraph therefore combines unity, sufficient development, and a clear relation between sentences. A topic sentence is often useful, but it is a rhetorical tool rather than an absolute rule for every genre.

A practical structure

Development, not sentence counting

A short paragraph can be complete if its purpose is narrow; a longer paragraph can still be weak if it contains unrelated claims. Writers should ask whether every sentence supports the controlling idea and whether the reader has enough explanation to understand the relationship between claim and evidence.

Original example

Focus: Classroom observation becomes more useful when evidence is separated from interpretation. Development: The observer first records visible actions, such as who speaks and what task is assigned. Support: Only then should the observer infer patterns such as limited participation or unclear instructions. Connection: This separation makes later feedback more defensible.

Revision checks

1. Underline the sentence or phrase expressing the main idea.
2. Label the function of every other sentence.
3. Remove or move material that serves a different idea.
4. Add explanation where the connection between evidence and claim is implicit.
5. Check the transition into the next paragraph.

Related modules

• ELT Didactics — English Language Teaching
• Sciences de l’éducation et didactique
• Psychologie de l’éducation
• Évaluation et curriculum
• Recherche éducative

For consolidation and review

• One paragraph should normally develop one controlling idea.
• Topic sentences are useful, but paragraph quality depends on purpose and development.
• Evidence needs explanation; examples do not interpret themselves.
• Revise by testing the function and relevance of every sentence.

Narrative: When the network failed before the presentation, one member opened an offline copy, turning a likely failure into a lesson about preparation.

Descriptive: Labelled folders lined one wall, low shelves held manipulatives, and a round table occupied the bright space beside the window.

Expository: Formative assessment is evidence collected during learning to inform the next instructional decision.

Argumentative: Schools should protect collaborative planning time because isolated preparation weakens curriculum coherence.

Typical structure and language by genre

Thesis statements and topic sentences

• A thesis in an argumentative essay states a debatable position: “Teachers should receive protected planning time because collaboration improves coherence.”
• A thesis in an expository text states a controlling idea, not an opinion: “Formative assessment serves three purposes: diagnosis, feedback and adjustment.”
• A topic sentence announces one idea only and is neither too broad (“Education is important”) nor too narrow (“Ms Alami uses a green pen”).

Distinguishing the dominant genre

Real texts mix genres: a narrative may contain a description, and an argument may use a short anecdote as evidence. Decide by the overall purpose: to tell what happened (narrative), to depict how something looks or feels (descriptive), to explain or inform (expository), or to persuade (argumentative).

Chapter objectives

• Choose a pattern that answers the purpose.
• Use consistent criteria and logical order.
• Recognize mixed patterns and dominant structure.

Choosing the pattern from the task

The task's key verb often signals the expected pattern: compare, contrast point to comparison–contrast; explain why, account for point to cause–effect; describe the stages points to sequence; propose a solution points to problem–solution. Reading the verb before planning avoids writing a well-organized answer to the wrong task.

Block versus point-by-point comparison

In block organization, the writer covers all criteria for the first item, then all criteria for the second: cost, speed and reliability for System A, then the same three criteria for System B. In point-by-point organization, the writer alternates by criterion: cost for A then B, speed for A then B, reliability for A then B. Point-by-point often makes direct comparison easier when several shared criteria matter; block organization may suit shorter or more holistic comparisons.

Integrating a mixed pattern

A single piece of writing often combines patterns under one dominant structure: a problem–solution essay may use a short cause–effect passage to explain why the problem exists, and a brief comparison to justify one solution over an alternative. The dominant pattern should still be identifiable from the overall shape of the paragraphs.

Common errors

• Switching criteria between items in a block comparison, which breaks the parallel structure.
• Selecting a pattern that does not match the task's key verb.
• Listing supporting points without an outline, which produces an unplanned, wandering structure.

Transitions by pattern

Quality checks for each pattern

• Classification: use a single principle (classify transport by power source, not by power source and by price in the same list), and make categories mutually exclusive and together complete.
• Definition: avoid circular definitions (“Feedback is giving feedback”) and definitions that are too broad (“A rubric is a document”).
• Sequence: mark each stage with a time marker and keep a single viewpoint tense.
• Cause–effect: distinguish a necessary cause from a contributing factor; show the mechanism, not only the link.
• Problem–solution: state the criteria for a good solution (cost, time, acceptability) and test the proposal against them.

Cause–effect structures

For consolidation and review

• Let the task verb determine the dominant organizational pattern.
• Choose block or point-by-point comparison according to purpose, length and the need for direct comparison.
• A dominant pattern can host a short passage in another pattern without losing its identity.
• Outline the pattern before drafting to keep criteria and order consistent.

Related modules

• ELT Didactics — English Language Teaching
• Sciences de l'éducation et didactique
• Psychologie de l'éducation
• Évaluation et curriculum
• Recherche éducative

Introductions: orient the reader

An introduction establishes the writing situation and gives readers a reason and a route for continuing. In an academic argument, it commonly moves from relevant context toward a focused problem, question or claim. The exact sequence depends on purpose and audience: a literary analysis, research report and professional memo do not need identical openings. A good introduction is therefore functional rather than formulaic.

Useful introduction moves

1. Establish the topic or situation without beginning too broadly.
2. Narrow to the specific problem, tension or question.
3. Provide only the background needed to understand the focus.
4. State the central claim, purpose or direction clearly when the genre requires it.

Weak openings often spend several sentences on universal claims such as “Since the beginning of time…”. Stronger openings define the actual issue early and show why it matters to the task.

Conclusions: complete the reasoning

A conclusion does more than repeat the introduction. It returns to the central purpose after the body has developed it, synthesises the main line of reasoning and clarifies its significance. Depending on the genre, it may identify implications, limitations, recommendations or a justified next step. It should not introduce a major new claim that the body never supported.

Original planning example

For an essay on peer feedback, the introduction can define the problem of vague comments and state that structured criteria improve revision. The body then analyses evidence and limits. The conclusion can synthesise why criteria help, note that feedback still requires training, and recommend a staged classroom procedure. That recommendation is justified because the body prepared it.

Common errors

• Writing a thesis that the body does not actually develop.
• Using the introduction as a complete history of the topic.
• Copying the thesis word for word in the conclusion.
• Adding new evidence or a new major argument at the end.
• Using “In conclusion” as a substitute for logical closure.

Related modules

• ELT Didactics — English Language Teaching
• Sciences de l’éducation et didactique
• Psychologie de l’éducation
• Évaluation et curriculum
• Recherche éducative

Types of opening move

Thesis versus announcement

• Announcement (weak): “In this essay I will discuss feedback.”
• Thesis (stronger): “Structured criteria make peer feedback more useful because they focus comments on revision.”

A thesis takes a position or states a controlling idea; an announcement only names the topic.

Alignment check

1. Underline the claim in the introduction.
2. Check that each body paragraph supports a part of that claim.
3. Check that the conclusion answers the same question and does not add a new major claim.

Strong and weak pairs

For consolidation and review

• Introduction = context, focus and direction appropriate to purpose and audience.
• Conclusion = synthesis, significance and justified closure.
• Neither section follows one universal formula.
• Check alignment: every promise in the introduction should be fulfilled by the body and conclusion.

Three qualities that work at different levels

Unity, cohesion and coherence are related but not interchangeable. Unity concerns focus: the material belongs to one controlling purpose. Cohesion concerns explicit sentence-level links. Coherence concerns the reader’s ability to follow the larger conceptual and logical progression. A text may contain many linking words and still be incoherent if its ideas are badly ordered.

How cohesion is created

Cohesion can come from reference words, repeated or related key terms, substitution, parallel structures and transitions. For example: The school introduced a reading log. This tool gave learners a visible record of progress. The phrase this tool creates a clear backward reference. Repetition can also be useful when the repeated term is the topic that readers need to track.

Coherence requires organisation

Coherence depends on meaningful ordering: cause before consequence when explanation requires it, general claim before examples when deduction is intended, or chronological order when sequence matters. Transitional expressions signal relationships, but they cannot invent a relationship that the ideas do not possess.

Original revision example

A paragraph begins with learner motivation, moves suddenly to classroom furniture, then returns to feedback. Adding however does not solve the problem. If furniture is not part of the controlling idea, move it elsewhere. Then connect motivation and feedback through an explicit causal or contrastive relation.

Revision method

1. Write the paragraph’s controlling idea in five to ten words.
2. Mark any sentence that does not serve it.
3. Draw arrows showing logical relations between sentences.
4. Add cohesive devices only where the relation is real but insufficiently signalled.
5. Read paragraph openings in sequence to test global coherence.

Related modules

• ELT Didactics — English Language Teaching
• Sciences de l’éducation et didactique
• Psychologie de l’éducation
• Évaluation et curriculum
• Recherche éducative

For consolidation and review

• Unity is focus, cohesion is local linking, coherence is meaningful overall flow.
• Transitions are signals, not substitutes for logic.
• Repetition and reference can improve cohesion when their referents are clear.
• Revise organisation before decorating a weak text with connectors.

Mechanics as a system for readable writing

Writing mechanics include punctuation, spelling and capitalization conventions that help readers identify boundaries, relationships and names. They matter because a mechanically ambiguous sentence can hide the intended grammar. At the same time, not every convention is universal: British and American usage, institutional style guides and specialised genres may differ. Writers should therefore master core rules and check the style required by the task.

Core punctuation decisions

Avoid the comma splice

Two independent clauses should not normally be joined by a comma alone. Revise The task was difficult, the learners persisted as two sentences, with a coordinating conjunction, or with a semicolon when the relationship is close.

Spelling and capitalization

Spelling should be consistent with the chosen variety and dictionary. Automated correction is useful but cannot decide intended meaning in pairs such as their/there. Capitalization normally marks sentence beginnings and proper names, while title capitalization depends on the style guide. Do not capitalise common nouns merely because they seem important.

Editing workflow

1. Check sentence boundaries before individual commas.
2. Check each apostrophe for possession or contraction.
3. Run a spelling check, then reread words in context.
4. Search for names, institutions and titles to verify capitalization consistently.
5. Apply the required style guide to quotation marks, titles and other variable conventions.

Common errors

• Using commas wherever a speaker might pause.
• Joining complete sentences with a comma alone.
• Using apostrophes to form ordinary plurals.
• Assuming a spellchecker detects every real-word error.

Related modules

• ELT Didactics — English Language Teaching
• Sciences de l’éducation et didactique
• Psychologie de l’éducation
• Évaluation et curriculum
• Recherche éducative

For consolidation and review

• Punctuation marks grammatical and rhetorical relationships, not just pauses.
• Check whether clauses are independent before choosing comma, conjunction, semicolon or full stop.
• Spelling and capitalization require consistency plus contextual proofreading.
• Where conventions vary, follow the specified style guide rather than treating one variant as universal.

• I can scan for exact details and synonyms.
• I compare entities by the same criterion.
• I separate fact, evaluation and prediction.
• I resolve reference through grammar and meaning.
• I infer vocabulary from morphology, syntax and discourse.
• I identify cohesive resources.
• I recognize organizational patterns.
• I infer viewpoint, tone and intention.
• I preserve modality in paraphrase.
• I summarize whole texts.
• I control articles and quantifiers.
• I select tense and aspect.
• I know gerund/infinitive patterns.
• I interpret modal force.
• I maintain pronoun clarity.
• I know dependent prepositions.
• I punctuate conjunctions.
• I identify clause types.
• I form passive constructions.
• I report speech accurately.
• I form mixed conditionals.
• I select context-appropriate functions.
• I identify word formation.
• I separate form from function.
• I recognize mitigation and accusation.
• I recognize variety differences without stereotypes.
• I distinguish semantic relations.
• I recognize collocations.
• I apply phrasal-verb separability.
• I interpret idioms and register.
• I evaluate paragraph focus.
• I distinguish genres.
• I evaluate openings and conclusions.
• I diagnose cohesion/coherence.
• I correct mechanics.

Adjust to the actual test and your performance profile.

Authoritative references

The official specification determines scope. Supplementary institutional sources provide the explanatory framework. All examples, passages and practice items are original.

1. Moroccan Ministry of National Education, Preschool and Sports — National Centre for School Examinations and Learning Assessment. English specialization test specifications, November 2025 session.
2. Council of Europe. CEFR Companion Volume (2020) and language versions.
3. Council of Europe. Reading comprehension.
4. British Council LearnEnglish. English grammar reference and B1–B2 grammar.
5. Cambridge Dictionary — English Grammar Today. Words, sentences and clauses; Collocation; Phrasal verbs and multi-word verbs.
6. Purdue University Online Writing Lab. Paragraphs and paragraphing; Revising for cohesion; Punctuation.

This is an independent study resource, not an official examination paper or scoring commentary.